Communication study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Communication study - Essay Example This chapter attempts to explore the use of indexes and scales as a measure of variable in social science research. It also discusses the various typologies employed in both qualitative and quantitative research (Babbie, 2012). Indices in this case are used to measure an individual item in relation to their importance in the concept being established. Babbie (2012) notes that indexes are normally used to measure a given social issues affecting people in the society. A scale, on the other hand, is used as a tool for ascertaining the intensity of emotions or attitude of an individual. Babbie (2012) reveals that the scales employed by the social scientists in research are normally constructed in the ordinal data level. Likert, semantic differential and Bogardus Social Distance Scales, are the typically examples of scales normally used by social scientists in their studies according to Babbie (2012). Babbie (2012) also considers the effectiveness of scales and indexes as a measure of variables in this chapter. In this regard, it comes out that scales are perceived to work better than indexes. This is because scales take into consideration the feelings being measured, as well as the intensity of the question asked, according to Babbie (2012). There are normally several data collection methods used by social scientists. Sampling is one of the most popular methods used for data collection. Sampling refers to the data collection method in which a given small sample is taken as a representative of an entire population according to Babbie (2012). In this chapter, Babbie (2012) explores sampling as a data collection technique used by social scientists. It also attempts to examine the various sampling techniques used by researchers, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of sampling as a data collection technique. Babbie (2012) reveals that sampling technique has been

Effect of Enzyme Catalase on Hydrogen Peroxide

Effect of Enzyme Catalase on Hydrogen Peroxide Introduction In this experiment, I am going to determine the effect of different concentration of enzyme catalase on the rate of reaction of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Normally, hydrogen peroxide is produced naturally in human or plant cell. Hydrogen peroxide is the by-product of respiration. As an oxidizer, it will decompose to form oxygen and water. The chemical equation for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is 2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2. The reaction is speeded up by the presence of enzyme, namely catalase which is used in this experiment. This mechanism is important in living organisms cells and body system particularly in human. This is because the corrosive characteristic of hydrogen peroxide may damage the wall of liver where it is largely produced during cellular respiration process. When it is present in high concentration, it is an aggressive and powerful oxidizer, whereby it is unstable and also hazardous as it will corrode many substances including human skin. Therefore, concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the cell should be constantly regulated. When hydrogen peroxide is used for the purpose of experiment, this highly corrosive material should be kept in a container made up of non-reactive material such as glass. However, at low concentration, hydrogen peroxide can be used as disinfectant and antiseptic for medicinal uses. In this context, catalase, a teramer of four polypeptide chains is made up of over 500 amino acids long. It is also categorised as globular protein in which the polypeptide chain is highly folded into a compact spherical shape. There is also active site available to bind to the hydrogen peroxide substrate to form enzyme-substrate complex. It is further adapted with four porphyrin heme groups to react with hydrogen peroxide. Besides, the enzyme catalase is known to be one of the enzymes that possess a high turnover number. Its turnover number can be up to 600 000 whereby one molecule of enzyme catalase can catalyse the decomposition of 600 000 molecules of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water at body temperature. This reaction is known as catabolic reaction as the hydrogen peroxide molecule is broken down into oxygen and water which are comparatively smaller. Sometimes, catalase also uses hydrogen peroxide to oxidise toxins including Phenols, Formic Acid, Formaldehyde and Alcohols. I n this experiment, potato is chosen to be tested due to the presence of catalase in it. However, other organisms such as fungi or yeast can be used as well as they are producers of enzyme catalase. Enzyme is used to speed up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy of a reaction. Activation energy or free energy of activation, is the initial investment of energy for starting a reaction the energy required to contort the reactant molecules so the bond can break for a reaction to occur. Enzyme functions as biological catalyst in many chemical reactions that occur inside our body. For example, saliva secretes enzyme amylase which catalyses the hydrolysis of carbohydrates in the mouth. Not only does enzyme play an important role in maintaining efficient function of body system, it is largely used in industrial field as well to speed up the production rate. For example, protease is commonly used in biological detergent for domestic washing and rennin is used in manufacture of cheese. For an enzyme to carry out its function effectively, active site should present on the surface of the polypeptide chain. An active site is a groove or pocket formed by the folding pattern of the protein. This active site has particular chemical composition and electrical charges on the amino acids, which make up the specificity of the enzyme, in which it allows only certain substances to bind to it. When the substrates bind to the active site, here the working mechanism of enzyme starts. The binding of the substrate to the active site bring the substrates closer and thus aids in bond formation in anabolic reaction. In catabolic reaction, the active site may distort the shape of substrate to break its bond. When the products are formed, the substances no longer fit into the specific shape of the enzyme and will leave the active site of the enzyme. The enzyme is free to bind to another substrate and catalyse another reaction. The enzyme is not altered at the end of reaction. As enzyme contains specific shape and charge on its active site, its activity is easily affected by the changes in the surrounding conditions. Generally, different pH, temperature, concentration of substrate or concentration of enzyme has a large impact on its efficiency in carrying out its function. Whenever the changes in surrounding such as change in pH or temperature alter the bonding between the R group of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain which form the active site, the shape of active site will change and thus the substrate will no longer bind to the site. At this point, the enzyme is said to be denatured. On the other side, when the temperature or pH is optimum for the reaction, the rate of reaction is the highest. Although the optimum pH and temperature may vary from one another, optimum temperature for most enzymes functioning in human body system is often 37 Â °C. However, the presence of inhibitors or cofactors may alter the enzyme activity as well. In this experi ment, the effect of enzyme concentration is chosen to be investigated on the rate of reaction catalysed by enzyme catalase. An increase in enzyme concentration will increase the active site available and thus increase the rate of reaction until it reaches maximum velocity when all active sites of the enzyme molecules are engaged. Problem Statement: Do different concentrations of enzyme affect the rate of reaction? Objectives: To investigate the effect of different concentrations of catalase on the rate of reaction to catalyse the decomposition reaction of hydrogen peroxide To determine the presence of catalase on the rate of reaction of hydrogen peroxide. To develop effective experimental skills throughout the experiment Aim: To determine the effect of different concentrations of enzyme on the enzyme activity Hypothesis: The higher the concentration of enzyme, the higher the rate of reaction until a maximum velocity is reached. Techniques: Use a water displacement technique to determine the volume of oxygen gas evolved Calculate the rate of reaction by using the gradient of the graph Materials: Freshly mashed or blended potato, 3.0 % hydrogen peroxide solution, buffer solution (pH 6.5), distilled water Apparatus: Boiling tubes, graduated tubes, 500 ml beaker, weighing balance, spatula, delivery tube, stop watch, measuring cylinder, dropper, rubber bung, weighing dish Variables: Variable How the variable is determined 1. Manipulated Concentration of catalase By using different mass of blended potato at 1g, 2g, 3g and 4g. Different masses of blended potato indicate the difference in concentration of catalase in its content. 2. Responding The volume of oxygen gas released By recording down the reading on the graduated tubes at 30 seconds interval. 3. Constant pH Volume and Concentration of hydrogen peroxide By using buffer solutions at pH 6.8 throughout the experiments By using the same volume and concentration of hydrogen peroxide, which is 2.5cm3of 3.0 % hydrogen peroxide throughout the experiment Procedure: 1 g of the freshly prepared or blended potato is transferred into a boiling tube. 5 cm3 of buffer solution is added into the tube and it is swirled to mix the substrate. A graduated tube is filled with water to the brim. It is placed carefully into a beaker of water. One end of the delivery tube is placed into the graduated tube with the other end with rubber bung ready to fix with boiling tube. 2.5 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide solution is measured and it is added into the boiling tube containing the potato and buffer solution. The tube is immediately closed with a rubber bung connected to the delivery tube. A stopwatch is started by one member of the pairs in conducting this experiment. The volume of gas released is measured for every 30 seconds for 5 minutes or until the gas evolution stops. The experiment is repeated using 2g, 3g and 4g of freshly blended potato. The results obtained are recorded in a table. Graphs for volume of gas released against time is plotted for each concentration or amount of enzyme used. The initial rate of reaction for each concentrations of enzyme used are worked out. Discussion: Based on the above experiment, the effect of different concentrations of enzyme on the rate of reaction is successfully determined. Five graphs are plotted based on the results obtained in the experiment to show the data in a clearer way and provides a better mean for analysing. The results show that the rate of reaction is increased by an increase in enzyme concentration. In this experiment, potato is used as source of catalyse. The first four graphs showing oxygen gas evolved against time are drawn based on respective mass of blended potato used. The initial rate of reaction is measured from each graph by obtaining the gradient of the graph. A predicted line is drawn on each graph. Generally, the longer the time taken, the higher the volume of oxygen gas evolved. In the beginning, all graphs show an rapid increase , the speed is the slow down as some of the substrates are converted to products. For the substrate at 1 and 2 g of bended potato used, the maximum volume of oxygen gas e volved has reached within 300 seconds and a plateau is obtained. This is because the reaction has completed for all substrates. Theoretically, the maximum volume of oxygen gas released should takes a shorter time as compared to 1g and 2 g of potato as more active site are offered. However, In the 3 and 4 g of blended potato which react, the maximum volume of oxygen is unable to be obtained within 300 seconds. This is probably due to some errors conducted throughout the experiment, particularly due to the vigorous and rapid reaction and in the process of changing the graduated tube. The errors will be discussed later. The initial rate is taken because the rate of reaction is rapid as the collision between the substrate and enzyme is the highest. The rate of reaction may not be reliable to be compared between data if readings are taken in the middle of the experiment because some reactions have reached the maximum rate. The initial rate of reaction for hydrogen peroxide with 1g, 2g, 3 g and 4g of blended potatoes are 0.0611, 0.2895, 0.6579 and 0.7000 cm3/ s respectively. The initial rate of reactions for all the experiments are then compiled into the fifth graph. This shows a clearer picture on the effect of concentration of substrate on the rate of reaction. Initially, there is an increase in the rate of reaction when the mass of blended potato increases. This is because the increase in the concentration of enzyme offers more active site for the binding of substrate. Then, the slope of increasing line becomes less steep with further increase in concentration of enzyme. This is because the active site has been occupied by the substrates or it is said to be saturated whereby the increase in substrate has no further effect on the rate of reaction. Theoretically, the graph should reach a maximum velocity where the plateau occurs in the graph. However, in this experiment, the plateau is not shown because most probably the concentration of enzyme is not high enough to bind to all the 3.0 % of hydrogen peroxide substrate. However, throughout the experiment some errors might occur in which the real values may not be obtained. Firstly, there is a high tendency for the reading obtained from water displacement method to be inaccurate especially when the volume of oxygen gas evolved are too much that the first graduated tube is fully filled with oxygen gas and when the delivery tube has to be transferred to the next prior-prepared graduated tube. The delivery tube transferring process may consume some time particularly if a rubber delivery tube is used instead of a glass delivery tube. This will cause some of the oxygen gas to escape into the water during the process. Next, parallax error may occur as well when the reading is taken from the graduated tube on the volume of oxygen gas evolved. This is because oxygen gas is a colourless gas, in which its level is not so clearly seen on the calibration of the graduated tube. To minimise the errors, the experiment is repeated twice and the mean reading is obtai ned. To further increase the accuracy of the results, a piece of white paper can be placed behind the graduated tube to make the reading easier. Next, the possible error is greater if the experiment is carried out individually. This is due to the human limited ability to record the reading and at the same time watch over the time. Inaccuracy may arise. In this case, a pair work is preferred in this experiment as one of the members times and the other one record the readings obtained. Next, when the mashed potato is poured into the boiling tube from the weighing dish, some potato may be left in the weighing dish. To minimise this error, a few drops of distilled water can be used to rinse the weighing dish to ensure there is no residue left. Consequently, there are a few precautions that ought to be taken to increase the accuracy of the results obtained. For each experiment, the potato used must be freshly mashed or blended. If the potato is prepared in a container, the lid of the container should be kept closed after the desired mass of blended potato is scooped out for each and every experiment. The preparation of blended potato in a beaker which is exposed to the air should be prevented because oxidation will occur and this may affect the activity of enzyme catalase in it. Changes in surrounding such as temperature may also induce changes in the enzyme. A blended potato is used instead of discs of potato so that it will react easier. Its viscosity should be reduced so that it is easier to use. Next, hydrogen peroxide has to be stored in an opaque container as it breaks down quickly when exposed to light. The lid of the container that contains hydrogen peroxide solution should be kept closed after each desired sample i s taken out using a dropper as the oxygen in the surrounding air may oxidise its content and causes the results to be inaccurate. A buffer solution is used to ensure the pH is kept constant throughout the experiment. The buffer solution of citric acid sodium phosphate solution which has a pH of 6.8 is used because this is the optimum pH for the enzyme catalase. Furthermore, a water bath is preferable as the surrounding temperature may change throughout the experiment. In addition, as the rubber bung of the delivery tube should be of the same size as the boiling tube to ensure all the opening of the boiling tube containing enzyme and substrate is fit tightly, it should be pushed and twisted with care. It should also be checked from time to time to ensure there is no leakage of product in gaseous form to the surrounding. Besides, the other open end of delivery tube should be placed in water all the time for the bubble of gas to form and rise to its surface. The presence of air bubbles ensure that the rubber bung is still in contact with the boiling tube unless the substrate and enzyme has completely reacted. To fix the graduated tube in place, a retort stand and clamp can be used. Besides, the boiling tube containing reactants and enzyme ought to be swirled throughout the experiment to ensure the substrate and enzyme react. This may increase the rate of collision between the reactants and enzymes and thus fasten the time taken for the reaction to complete. Throughout the experiment, some safety measures should be abided by. As the substrate used in this experiment which is hydrogen peroxide is highly corrosive, rubber glove should be used to protect the skin. After the hydrogen peroxide is used, it should be disposed off and not to be returned to stock bottles as any contaminants may result in decomposition and explosion may occur. The blended potatoes have to be handled carefully as well as it will irritate some peoples skin. A lab coat should be put on. The glass wares and the delivery tube used should be handled carefully as they are fragile. Conclusion: The hypothesis is accepted. The presence of enzyme increases the rate of reaction of hydrogen peroxide. When the concentration of enzyme increases, the rate of reaction increases until a maximum velocity is reached. Limitations: The species of potato Different species of potato may contain various concentration sof catalase The age of potato An older potato may have lower concentration of catalase The freshness of potato The concentration of catalase may vary in different potatoes which are stored in different ways before experiment. Storage at high temperature may cause the enzyme to denature Part of potato used Different parts on the potato may have different amount of catalase. Further Work: The effect of temperature on the enzyme activity The effect of different concentrations of substrate on the enzyme activity The effect of pH on the enzyme activity The effect of concentrations of enzyme on activity of other type of enzyme such as amylase on starch The effect on the rate of reaction of hydrogen peroxide by using different concentration of fungi as the source of catalase

Essay --

Damon Perez Mrs. Mcgillivray 8th Grade Science 18 December 2013 Incarceration is the process of being sent to prison. The top 10 reasons people are sent to prison are: larceny, drug possession, public intoxication, fraud, theft, aggravated assault, armed robbery, DUI, homicide, and rape. Women are 20% of people arrested. About 15% of people that are arrested are released within 4 hours or less - and about 66% are released within 48 hours. Some people that are arrested are released on bond - 46%. Some people who are arrested are charged with felonies - 25%, the other people were charged with misdemeanor offenses - 75%. There are differences between prison, jail, and juvenile detention. Prisons are operated by state governments and the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP). They are designed to hold individuals convicted of crimes. People serving long sentences (over a year) go to prison. Jails are most often run by sheriffs and/or local governments. They are designed to hold individuals awaiting trial or are serving short sentences. People serving short sentences (a year or under) go to jail. A youth detention center, also known as a juvenile detention center or, known as juvie, is a secure residential facility for young people. They are called juvenile delinquents. They are waiting court hearings and/or placement in long-term care.(www.BOP.org) There are approximately 1494 prisons in the United States. Jail is where people serve time for the bad stuff they did, a place where a person convicted of a crime is detained. Prison is a place for those convicted of serious crimes. Felony charges are more serious crimes that carry much higher jail time. Misdemeanor charges are still serious crimes just not as dangerous nor se... ...y will schedule a hearing to think about the sentence at a later date. In most felony cases the judge waits for the results of a presentence report, prepared by the court's probation office, before making the sentence. If the defendant pleads not guilty, the judge will proceed to schedule a trial. People charged do not have to prove their innocence. Instead, the government must provide evidence to convince the jury of the person’s guilt. The level of proof in a criminal trial is proof "beyond a reasonable doubt," which means the evidence must be so strong that there is no logical doubt that the person charged committed the crime. (http://www.uscourts.gov/FederalCourts/UnderstandingtheFederalCourts/HowCourtsWork/CriminalCases.aspx) Works Cited: www.fbi.gov www.uscourts.gov www.fedstats.gov www.state.gov www.zellislaw.com www.avvo.com www.wisegeek.com

Hazrat Muhammad (saw) today’s Prophet Essay

When we talk about the historical personalities, Hazrat Mohammad PBUH is the greatest person among all. Prophet Mohammad PBUH is the last and perfect Prophet of Allah. I am pleased to share Prophet Mohammad PBUH actions towards each and every matter. Prophet Mohammad PBUH was the greatest scholar. His teachings are regarded the most valuable and acceptable knowledge. Not only Muslims but also non-Muslims are greatly inspired with his character and commend his nobility. Prophet Mohammad PBUH taught human being that how to be gentle and kind with other people and even with the animals. he life of the Holy Prophet, peace be on him, was a life of grand success. In his high moral qualities, his spiritual power, his high resolve, the excellence and perfection of his teaching, his perfect example and the acceptance of his prayers, in short, in every aspect of his life, he exhibited such bright signs that even a person of low intelligence, provided he is not inspired by unreasonable rancour and enmity, is forced to confess that he was a perfect example of the manifestation of Divine qualities and was a perfect man. . Prophet Mohammad PBUH was a great model for all the humanity. This article contains some actions towards every matter done by our beloved Prophet Hazrat Mohammad PBUH. Mercy to all mankind: Allah Subhanoho wa-T’ala Says to Prophet Muhammad (s.a.a.w.) in The Holy Quran: â€Å"And We have not sent you except as a mercy to mankind.† Hadrat Abu Huraira said: the Prophet was asked to curse the infidels. He said, â€Å"I have not been sent to curse people but as a mercy to all mankind.† (Muslim) Mother of faithful believers Hadrat Aisha (said that she once asked the Holy Prophet :’Did you face a day severer than the day of the battle of Uhud? ‘He answered: ‘Yes I have experienced such things at the hands of your people and such a day was the day of Aqabah. On this day I presented me. In this cloud I saw Angel Jibril (peace be upon him) who called me and said: Allah, the Most High, has heard what your people have said to you and the response to your offer. Allah has now sent the Angel of the Mountains to you to carry out your orders to do what you might like to be done to them. Then the Angel of the Mountains addressed me greeting with Salam and then said: ‘Muhammad! Allah (The Glorified and the Exalted) has heard what your people have said to you. I am the Angel of the Mountains and my Lord has sent me to you to carry out your orders. What do you want now to be done? If you like I may crush them between the two mountains encircling the city of Makka. The Holy Prophet replied: (I do not want their destruction) I am still hopeful that Allah will make some of their children (good Muslims) who would worship Allah, the One, without associating anybody with Him. His manners and disposition: â€Å"By the grace of Allah, you are gentle towards the people; if you had been stern and ill-tempered, they would have dispersed from round about you† (translation of Qur’an 3:159) About himself the prophet (pbuh) said:†Allah has sent me as an apostle so that I may demonstrate perfection of character, refinement of manners and loftiness of deportment.† By nature he was gentle and kind hearted, always inclined to be gracious and to overlook the faults of others. Politeness and courtesy, compassion and tenderness, simplicity and humility, sympathy and sincerity were some of the keynotes of his character. In the cause of right and justice he could be resolute and severe but more often than not, his severity was tempered with generosity. He had charming manners which won him the affection of his followers and secured their devotion. Though virtual king of Arabia and an apostle of Allah, he never assumed an air of superiority. Not that he had to conceal any such vein by practice and artifice: with fear of Allah, sincere humility was ingrained in his heart. He used to say, â€Å"I am a Prophet of Allah but I do not know what will be my end.† In one of his sermons calculated to instill the fear of Allah and the day of reckoning in the hearts of men, he said, â€Å"O people of Quraish be prepared for the hereafter, I cannot save you from the punishment of Allah; O Bani Abd Manaf, I cannot save you from Allah; O Abbas, son of Abdul Mutalib, I cannot protect you either; O Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, even you I cannot save.† He used to pray,:†O Allah! I am but a man. If I hurt any one in any manner, then forgive me and do not punish me.† He always received people with courtesy and showed respect to older people and stated: â€Å"To honor an old man is to show respect to Allah.† He would not deny courtesy even to wicked persons. It is stated that a person came to his house and asked permission for admission. The prophet (pbuh) remarked that he was not a good person but might be admitted. When he came in and while he remained in the house, he was shown full courtesy. When he left Aiysha (ra) said, â€Å"You did not think well of this man, but you treated him so well.† The prophet (pbuh) replied, â€Å"He is a bad person in the sight of Allah who does not behave courteously and people shun his company bacause of his bad manners.† He was always the first to greet another and would not withdraw his hand from a handshake till the other man withdrew his. If one wanted to say something in his ears, he would not turn away till one had finished . He did not like people to get up for him and used to say,†Let him who likes people to stand up in his honour, he should seek a place in hell.† He would himself, however, stand up when any dignitary came to him. He had stood up to receive the wet nurse who had reared him in infancy and had spread his own sheet for her. His foster brother was given similar treatment. He avoided sitting at a prominent place in a gathering, so much so that people coming in had difficulty in spotting him and had to ask which was the Prophet (pbuh). Quite frequently uncouth Bedouins accosted him in their own gruff and impolite manner but he never took offence. He used to visit the poorest of ailing persons and exhorted all muslims to do likewise â€Å". He would sit with he humblest of persons saying that righteousness alone was the criterion of one’s superiority over another. He invariably invited people be they slaves, servants or the poorest believers, to partake with him of his scanty meals . Whenever he visited a person he would first greet him and then take his permission to enter the house. He advised the people to follow this etiquette and not to get annoyed if anyone declined to give permission, for it was quite likely the person concerned was busy otherwise and did not mean any disrespect (Ibid). There was no type of household work too low or too undignified for him. Aiysha (ra) has stated, â€Å"He always joined in household work and would at times mend his clothes, repair his shoes and sweep the floor. He would milk, tether, and feed his animals and do the household shopping.† He would not hesitate to do the menial work of others, particularly of orphans and widows. Once when there was no male member in the house of the companion Kabab Bin Arat who had gone to the battlefield, he used to go to his house daily and milk his cattle for the inhabitants Justice: The Prophet (pbuh) asked people to be just and kind. As the supreme judge and arbiter, as the leader of men, as generalissimo of a rising power, as a reformer and apostle, he had always to deal with men and their affairs. He had often to deal with mutually inimical and warring tribes when showing justice to one carried the danger of antagonizing the other, and yet he never deviated from the path of justice. In administering justice, he made no distinction between believers and nonbelievers, friends and foes, high and low. From numerous instances reported in the traditions, a few are given below. Sakhar, a chief of a tribe, had helped Muhammad (pbuh) greatly in the seige of Taif, for which he was naturally obliged to him. Soon after, two charges were brought against Sakhar: one by Mughira of illegal confinement of his (Mughira’s) aunt and the other by Banu Salim of forcible occupation of his spring by Sakhar. In both cases, he decided against Sakhar and made him undo the wrong. (Abu Dawud, Sunan Dawud, pg.80) Abdullah Bin Sahal, a companion, was deputed to collect rent from Jews of Khaibar. His cousin Mahisa accompanied him but, on reaching Khaibar, they had separated. Abdullah was waylaid and done to death. Mahisa reported this tragedy to the Prophet (pbuh) but as there were no eye-witnesses to identify the guilty, he did not say anything to the Jews and paid the blood-money out of the state revenues. A woman of the Makhzoom family with good connections was found guilty of theft. For the prestige of the Quraish, some prominent people including Asama Bin Zaid interceded to save her from punishment. The Prophet (pbuh) refused to condone the crime and expressed displeasure saying, â€Å"Many a community ruined itself in the past as they only punished the poor and ignored the offences of the exalted. By Allah, if Muhammad’s (My) daughter Fatima would have committed theft, her hand would have been severed.† (Bukhari, Sahh Bukhari, Chapter â€Å"Alhadood†) The Jews, in spite of their hostility to the Prophet (pbuh), were so impressed by his impartiallity and sense of justice that they used to bring their cases to him, and he decided them according to Jewish law. (Abu Dawud, Sunan Dawud) Once, while he was distributing the spoils of war, people flocked around him and one man almost fell upon him. He pushed the men with a stick causing a slight abrasion. He was so sorry about this that he told the man that he could have his revenge, but the man said, â€Å"O messenger of Allah, I forgive you.† (Abu Dawud, Kitablu Diyat). In his fatal illness, the Prophet (pbuh) proclaimed in a concourse assembled at his house that if he owed anything to anyone the person concerned could claim it; if he had ever hurt anyone’s person, honor or property, he could have his price while he was yet in this world. A hush fell on the crowd. One man came forward to claim a few dirhams which were paid at once. (Ibn Hisham, Sirat-ur-Rasul) Equality: Muhammad (pbuh) asked people to shun notions of racial, family or any other form of superiority based on mundane things and said that righteousness alone was the criterion of one’s superiority over another. It has already been shown how he mixed with everyone on equal terms, how he ate with slaves, servants and the poorest on the same sheet (a practice that is still followed in Arabia), how he refused all privileges and worked like any ordinary laborer. Two instances may, however, be quoted here: Once the Prophet (pbuh) visited Saad Bin Abadah. While returning Saad sent his son Quais with him. The Prophet (pbuh) asked Quais to mount his camel with him. Quais hesitated out of respect but the Prophet (pbuh) insisted: â€Å"Either mount the camel or go back.† Quais decided to go back. (Abu Dawud, Kitabul Adab) On another occasion he was traveling on his camel over hilly terrain with a disciple, Uqba Bin Aamir. After going some distance, he asked Uqba to ride the camel, but Uqba thought this would be showing disrespect to the Prophet (pbuh). But the Prophet (pbuh) insisted and he had to comply. The Prophet (pbuh) himself walked on foot as he did not want to put too much load on the animal. (Nasai pg. 803) The prisioners of war of Badr included Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet (pbuh). Some people were prepared to forgo their shares and remit the Prophet’s (pbuh) ransom but he declined saying that he could make no distinctions. (Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, Chapter â€Å"Ransoms†) During a halt on a journey, the companions apportioned work among themselves for preparing food. The Prophet (pbuh) took upon himself the task of collecting firewood. His companions pleaded that they would do it and that he need not take the trouble, but he replied, â€Å"It is true, but I do not like to attribute any distinction to myself. Allah does not like the man who considers himself superior to his companions

Personality in Politics: Analyzing George W. Bush Essay

The relationship between personality, experience, and political decision-making has been established in several studies. This has been undertaken using â€Å"at a distance techniques† which evaluate the relationship using biographies, speeches, and text from interviews. One of the most prominent names that focused on the predictive ability of personality on political styles and actions of world leaders has been renowned political scientists Margaret Hermann. Hermann lists six factors that influence the impact of world leaders on foreign policy. â€Å"1) what their world view is; 2) what their political style is like; 3) what motivates them to have the position they do; 4) whether they are interested in and have training in foreign affairs; 5) what the foreign policy climate was like when the leader was starting out his or her political career; and 6) how the leader was socialized into his or her present position. † Essentially, personality, background, and previous experiences shape the foreign policy-making behavior of world leaders. This becomes especially clear when leaders confront a national crisis. How a leader conducts foreign affairs in the midst of crisis heightens his level of control on decision-making and resources. It is during this time that the interplay of personality and experience can be evaluated on their impact on the leader’s words and actions. Personality is a significant modifier in a leader’s foreign policy-making behavior. This was posited by Hermann in her leadership analysis of 51 world leaders. Hermann (2003) defined personality to be a mixture of seven traits. These were â€Å"`1) belief in ability to control events, 2) conceptual complexity, 3) need for power, 4) distrust of others, 5) in-group bias, 6) self-confidence, and 7) task orientation. † This paper applies this mode of analysis on George W. Bush, the 43rd President of the United States with an emphasis on his behavior during the September 11 Crisis and the Iraq War. Bush displayed high belief in his ability to control events, a personality trait related to how an individual perceives his control over political circumstances and his perception on the influence or significance of his state in resolving a foreign policy issue. Judging on his pronouncements about the righteousness of the Iraq War and the responsibility of the US and its allies to stop Saddam Hussein, Bush was strong, even arrogant in his belief that the US must wage war, even going against the judgment of the United Nations Security Council, â€Å"America will never seek a permission slip to defend the security of our people. † In terms of his conceptual complexity, Bush was more inclined to see foreign affairs in black and white terms than appreciate it to be the result of a myriad of factors. Bush displays a straightforward binary stance on the positioning of countries in foreign affairs, most notably the classification that all US action is good and countries better follow it. In his speech precursor to the US campaign after September 11, Bush said, â€Å"Every nation in every region now has a decision to make: Either you are with us or you are with the terrorists. † In analyzing the causes of foreign policy problems, Bush went for the superficial explanation in place of the complex one. In terms of self-confidence, Bush displays high levels of optimism and fervor despite being placed in tight situations. His well-known Bushisms, for instance, seemed to have not marred his confidence or his nature. Despite his numerous verbal fiascos such as in addressing families of victims of September 11, â€Å"They misunderestimated the compassion of our country†¦ I talk to families who die,† Bush has managed to even make fun of himself. In sum, the foreign policy decisions of George W. Bush were reflective of his personality that is characterized by high belief in ability to control events, low conceptual complexity, and high degree of self-confidence. His personality and background created a foreign policy legacy which became detrimental to his party’s bid for the 2010 presidential seat. Bibliography CNN. â€Å"State of the Union Address,† (2004) http://edition. cnn. com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/01/20/sotu. transcript. 1/index. html (accessed May 8, 2010). CNN. â€Å"Transcript of President Bush’s address. † (2001) http://edition. cnn. com/2001/US/09/20/gen. bush. transcript/ (accessed May 8, 2010). Feller, Ben, â€Å"Analysis: Bush’s Personality Shapes His Legacy. † MSNBC (Jan. 3, 2009), http://www. msnbc. msn. com/id/28482517/ (accessed May 8, 2010). Hermann, Margaret, â€Å"Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior Using the Personal Characteristics of Political Leaders. † International Studies Quarterly (1983) 24:7-46. Hermann, Margaret, â€Å"Assessing Leadership Style: Trait Analysis,† in The Psychological Assessment of Political Leaders, ed. J. M. Post (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003).